We are now moving into pastoralism and working with animals. This is a transitional period between the hunter-gatherer lifestyle and settlement agriculture. This segment deals with some historical and social aspects of this practice:
TRANSITION BETWEEN EPOCHS I AND II
(Nomads and Pastoralists)
I. ORIGINS
There are essentially two forms of pastoralism. They are known as nomadism and transhumance. Pastoral nomads follow a seasonal migratory pattern that can vary from year to year. The timing and destinations of migrations are determined primarily by the needs of the herd animals for water and fodder. These nomadic societies do not create permanent settlements, but rather they live in tents or other relatively easily constructed dwellings the year round. Pastoral nomads are usually self-sufficient in terms of food and most other necessities. In this transitional epoch we will look applications of pastoralism to our current lifestyle. Please read through the following information on pastoral societies. How can we relate to this lifestyle? How is this lifestyle reflected in our modern world? Are there many similarities and differences in how we live our daily existence?
A. Transhumance pastoralists follow a cyclical pattern of migrations that usually take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in the winter. This is seasonal migration between the same two locations in which they have regular encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses. Transhumance pastoralists usually depend somewhat less on their animals for food than do nomadic ones. They often do small scale vegetable farming at their summer encampments. They also are more likely to trade their animals in town markets for grain and other things that they do not produce themselves.
Not all pastoralist societies can be accurately described as following a nomadic or transhumance way of life. As conditions change, pastoralists usually adjust. This can result in a traditionally nomadic society or some families within in it becoming more or less transhumance in their migratory patterns if the opportunity arises. Likewise, a society that prefers a transhumance way of life may be forced by circumstances to change to a nomadic pattern for some or all of its livestock.
B. Pastoralism is most often an adaptation to semi-arid open country in which farming can not be easily sustained without importing irrigation water from great distances. Pastoralism is usually the optimal subsistence pattern in these areas because it allows considerable independence from any particular local environment. When there is a drought, pastoralists disperse their herds or move them to new areas. Farmers rarely have these options. They suffer crop failure and starvation in the same situation. A pastoral subsistence pattern reduces the risk when there is an irregular climatic pattern. This is especially true of nomadic pastoralism.
C. The animals herded by pastoralists are rarely killed for family use alone. Fresh meat is distributed throughout the community. This is the most efficient use of their animals because they usually do not have the capability of adequately preserving meat. Not only does it ensure that no spoilage takes place, but it also sets up numerous obligations to reciprocate within the community. It promotes cooperation and solidarity. Often the slaughter of an animal is for a ritual occasion so that its death serves multiple purposes. It feeds both the gods and the people. Most pastoralists also get food from their animals without killing them. Horses, goats, sheep, cattle, and camels are milked. In East Africa, cattle herding societies also bleed their animals. The blood is mixed with fresh milk to make a protein rich drink.
D. Pastoralist societies most often have patrilineal descent patterns and are male dominated. Men usually make the important decisions and own the animals, while women primarily care for children and perform domestic chores. Compared to pedestrian foraging societies, the economic and political power of most pastoralist women is very low. The division of labor is based primarily on gender and age in both foraging and pastoralist societies.
E. Pastoralists often have the same distinct qualities of personality regardless of the region of the world in which they live
1. Men in a local group tend to be cooperative with each other and aggressive towards outsiders.
a. They usually can make important economic decisions quickly and act on them independently.
b. They have a profound emotional attachment to their animals.
2. A pastoralist leader needs to be a man who can direct the movements of his herds and decide on an optimum strategy for using scarce resources without having to first consult others
a. He needs to make decisions easily and to act on them without hesitation
b. He needs to be able to take the initiative and to be a leader in aggressively defending his herd by expanding territory at the expense of others
c. He must always be realistic in his appraisal of the world
d. To do these things, he needs to have an attitude of self-containment, personal control, and bravery.
e. These typical pastoralist personality traits are related to subsistence success. As a consequence, boys are encouraged to emulate them as they grow up
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